Libya or Libia, officially Socialist People’s Libyan Arab Jamahirya [Arabic=state of the masses], Arabic Jamahiriya Al Arabiya Al Libiya Al Shabiya Al Ishtirakiya Al Uzma, republic (679,358 sq mi/1,759,540 sq km: 1991 estimated population 4,350,740; 2004 estimated population 5,631,585), N Africa, bordering on Algeria (SW), Tunisia (NW), Mediterranean Sea (N), Egypt (E), Sudan (SE), and Chad and Niger (S); (cap.) Tripoli (Arabic Tarabulus); 25°00'N 17°00'E.
Geography
Other cities include Ajdabiyah, Al Bayda, Al Marj, Banghazi, Misratah, and Tobruk. The country is divided into three main administrative and geographical regions: Cyrenaica (350,000 sq mi/905,000 sq km), also known as Eastern Provinces; Fazzan (220,000 sq mi/570,000 sq km); and Tripolitania (110,000 sq mi/285,000 sq km), also called Western Provinces. There are twenty-five provinces (baladiyah): Ajdabiya, Al Aziziyah, Al Fatih, Al Jabal al Akhdar, Al Jufrah, Al Khums, Al Kuffrah, An Nuqat al Khams, Ash Shati, Awbari, Az Zawiyah, Banghazi, Darnah, Ghadamis, Gharyan, Misratah, Marzuq, Sabha, Sawfajjin, Surt, Tarhunah, Tobruk, Tripoli, Yafran, and Zlitan.
Desert accounts for 97% of the land; 1.4% of it is arable, 0.1% irrigated. Libya is part of the vast North African Plateau. In NW Tripolitania, the Jifarah coastal plain rises slowly to meet the N-facing limestone escarpment of Jabal Nafusah, which extends SSW from Al Khums to Nalut, near the Tunisian border. To the S, the upland plateau of Ghudamis Basin and desert landscape of Hammada al Hamra gradually give way to the Marzuq Basin of Fazzan. Here, small groups of agricultural oases are located, where water resources and trade routes meet. In N Fazzan, oases are located along wadis in a series of long E-W depressions. Elsewhere are vast sand deserts, such as Sahra Awbari and Sahra Marzuq, as well as Jabal As Sawda and Al Haruj al Aswad, mountains of volcanic origin. In NE Cyrenaica, a narrow coastal plain (featuring the cities of Banghazi and Darnah) borders the Mediterranean Sea. Jebel Al Akhdar, a hilly limestone plateau (maximum elevation 2,860 ft/872 m) rises sharply from the coast (extending inland c.20 mi/32 km) and then drops sharply in the W toward the E coast of Gulf of Surt on the Mediterranean and the Surt Basin (135,135 sq mi/350,000 sq km), where most of the country’s major oil fields are located. In the E the plateau slopes gradually toward Egyptian border as a series of low ridges parallel to the coast known as Marmarica.
South of Jebel Al Akhdar is a vast desert lowland—part of As Sahra Al Libiyah (Libyan Desert), which extends to the Egyptian border—where Sarir Kalanshiyu, a large “sea” of fine mobile sands and dunes, As Sarir, and Ramlat Rabyanah are located. Settlement is concentrated in a few widely separated oases: Wahat Jalu and Jaghbub in N and Az Zighan and Al Jawf (the largest oases in Wahat Al Kufra) in the S. In SW Cyrenaica, Sarir Tibasti and a narrow arm of the central Saharan Tibasti Mountains cross the border into Chad. Picco Bette, Libya’s highest point (elevation 7,438 ft/2,267 m) is here.
The climate in most of the country is Saharan, with little rainfall and marked seasonal variations in temperature. There are narrow bands of Mediterranean-type climate along Jifarah and the N Cyrenaica coastal plain, with semiarid steppe weather conditions (long, hot summers and short, cool winters) inland, on Jebel Nafusah and Jebel Al Akhdar. Summer temperatures in Tripoli average 72°F/22°C–86°F/30°C; the average annual rainfall here is 15 in/38 cm. Al Aziziyah, S of Tripoli, has the world’s highest recorded shade temperature (c.141°F/60°C). Lengthy droughts (sometimes lasting for years) and long periods of desiccation are common. Ghiblis (hot, dry, and sand-laden S Saharan winds that can last several days) exaggerate arid conditions during spring and autumn and often pose agricultural and public health hazards.
Population
The population is unevenly distributed. Approximately 66% live in Tripolitania (mostly in Tripoli, Misratah, and regional administrative and commercial centers in Jifarah and Jebel Nafusah). About 20% live in Cyrenaica, primarily in Banghazi, Tobruk, Al Bayda, Darnah, and smaller settlements on Jebel Al Akhdar plateau. The rest of the population is concentrated in oases, mostly in Fazzan. An estimated 86% of residents now live in urban centers, due to heavy migration from rural areas in recent years. Labor shortages in the agriculture and petroleum industries have attracted many foreign workers, mostly from Egypt, Tunisia, and Turkey. In 1995, 30,000 Palestinian workers were expelled because of the Israel-PLO peace agreement; some Egyptian workers were also expelled. Berbers once constituted the chief ethnic group, but now they have been largely assimilated into Arab culture. In Fazzan there are many persons are of mixed Berber and black African descent; there are also smaller groups of Italians and Greeks. About 5% of population live as pastoral nomads, mostly in Cyrenaica. Arabic is the official language, and the greater majority of people are Sunni Muslim.
Economy
Libya was a very poor, agriculturally-oriented country with bleak economic prospects until 1958, when petroleum was discovered 200 mi/320 km–300 mi/480 km S and SE of Gulf of Surt; crude petroleum was exported on an increasingly significant scale between 1961 and 1981. Income increased markedly when government nationalized (with compensation) 51% ownership in subsidiaries of foreign petroleum firms operating in the country (1972–1973). The remaining subsidiaries were completely nationalized. At the same time, the price of petroleum rose dramatically, further enhancing Libya’s wealth. Since then, the economy has been almost inextricably linked to world oil prices. Much of the income from petroleum was used to create and improve cities, to modernize transportation and agriculture, and to build up the military. The rise of the petroleum industry resulted in the migration of many Libyans to urban areas and the growth of unemployment; to solve this problem, the government invested more money in agricultural development in an attempt to make farming more attractive. Although petroleum production has dropped since the 1970s, petroleum exports continue to generate a substantial percentage of the country’s GDP. The country is also a major exporter of natural gas and has several large gas liquefication plants. In addition, gypsum, salt, and limestone are produced in significant quantities. Although farming is severely limited by the small amount of fertile soil and the lack of rainfall, agriculture still employs about 17% of the labor force (2004 estimate). To increase the amount of land that can be cultivated, Libya has initiated several reclamation projects on the Jifarah plain, at Tawurgha, and in the Saharan oases of Al Kufra, As Sarir, and Wadi Ajarif. One of the largest is the Great Manmade River (GMR) project (begun 1984) designed to carry fossil water from Saharan artesian wells through a 2,400 mi/3,862 km pipeline system to irrigate 313 sq mi/811 sq km in the coastal region. The largest agricultural irrigation project in the Middle East, the GMR is expected to take 25 years to complete and cost an estimated $25 billion. By 1997, the system was connected to the cities of Tripoli, Cirt, and Benghazi and also provided thousands of acres of farmland with irrigation water. Chief agricultural products are grain, olives, tobacco, fruits, vegetables, and nuts; sheep and goats are raised. In addition to petroleum and natural-gas production, manufacturing includes construction materials (especially cement), chemicals, processed food, beverages, clothing, footwear, soap, and cigarettes. Libya has a large military industry. Libya’s annual earnings from exports usually far exceed the cost of imports; it has the highest per capita GDP in Africa (estimated at $6,400 in 2003). Crude petroleum is the leading export; the main imports are machinery, foodstuffs, transport equipment, and consumer goods. Principal trade partners are Italy, Germany, Great Britain, France, and Spain.
History to 1815
Throughout most of its history the territory that constitutes modern Libya has been held by foreign powers. Tripolitania and Cyrenaica had divergent histories up to Ottoman conquest (mid-16th century). Fazzan was captured by Ottomans only in 1842. Ottomans gained control of most of N Africa (16th century), dividing it into three regencies—Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli (which included Cyrenaica). The Janissaries, professional soldiers of slave origins, wielded considerable influence over the Ottoman governor. From the early 1600s, Janissaries chose a leader called the Dey, who sometimes had as much power as the Ottoman governor sent from Constantinople. Pirates based in Tripoli preyed on shipping of Christian nations in the Mediterranean Sea. Janissary Ahmad Karamanli, who became Dey in 1711, killed the Ottoman governor and prevailed upon the Ottomans to appoint him to the post. The position of governor remained hereditary in the Karamanli family until 1835. In the 18th century and during the Napoleonic Wars, the Dey took in a large amount of revenue from piracy and extended central government control into much of the country’s interior. U.S. and Tripoli went to war (1801–1805) over the amount of tribute to be paid to the Dey for protection from pirate raids.
History - 1815 to 1943
After 1815, England, France, and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies undertook a successful campaign against the pirates; this undermined the Dey’s finances and facilitated reestablishment of direct Ottoman rule in Tripoli (1835). Italy conquered N Tripoli in the Turko-Italian War (1911–1912); Tripoli and N Libya received autonomy from Turkey by the Treaty of Ouchy. Libyans continued to fight the Italians, but by 1914 Italy had occupied much of the country. However, Italy was forced to undertake a long series of wars of pacification against government leaders and their allies. During the 1930s, while the country was still under Italian rule, roads, civic buildings, schools, and hospitals were built. In 1934 Tripolitania (which included Fazzan at the time) and Cyrenaica formally united to form the colony of Libya. It was made an integral part of Italy (1939) and was one of the main battlegrounds of N Africa after Italy entered World War II (June 1940).
History - 1943 to 1973
After the Allied victory in N Africa (1943), Libya was placed under an Anglo-French military government. The UN was given jurisdiction over the country in 1949, and it decided that Libya should be independent. On December 24, 1951, it became the United Kingdom of Libya, ruled by King Idris I. Italian colonists began leaving in droves just after World War II, and by 1964 most of them were gone. In 1970, Libya confiscated all Italian and Jewish property. The country joined the Arab League in 1953 and was admitted to the UN in 1955. The 1950s were characterized by great poverty, though the government maintained a balanced budget; a minimal amount of economic development was made possible only by subsidies and loans received from various Western nations. But the discovery of petroleum vastly improved Libya’s prospects. By the early 1960s the country was receiving a large amount of revenue from oil sales. A 1953 Anglo-Libyan treaty that had allowed Britain to establish military bases in Libya in return for economic subsidies was terminated by Libya in 1964; most British troops were withdrawn in early 1966. In September 1969, a group of army officers led by 27-year-old Muammar al-Qaddafi ousted King Idris in a coup d’etat. The constitution of 1951 was abrogated, and the government was placed in the hands of a twelve-member Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) headed by Qaddafi, who appointed himself prime minister. In mid-1972, Qaddafi turned the post of prime minister over to Abdul Salam Jallud, but he remained the RCC’s president, the country’s most important political and military office. The regime pursued a policy of Arab nationalism and strict adherence to Islamic law; though Qaddafi espoused socialist principles, he was strongly anticommunist. He was especially concerned with reducing Western influences; as part of that effort, Great Britain was forced to evacuate its remaining bases in Libya, and the U.S. abandoned its military base at Wheelus Field, near Tripoli.
History - 1973 to 1988
An implacable foe of Israel, Libya contributed men and materials (especially aircraft) to the Arab side in the Arab-Israeli war of October 1973. After the war, Libya was a strong advocate of reducing sales of petroleum to nations that had supported Israel and was also a leading force in increasing the price of crude petroleum. Relations with Egypt declined steadily after 1973 when Qaddafi failed to push through a merger with Egypt. Qaddafi survived a coup attempt (1975) and began ordering the assassination of dissidents who were living in exile in Europe (1980). In 1981,two Libyan fighter planes attacked U.S. forces on maneuvers in Gulf of Surt (which Libya claims as national waters), and the U.S. shot them down. Libya’s relations with the U.S. worsened when it became the alleged base for international terrorism and periodically offered financial assistance to terrorist organizations. The U.S. banned Libyan oil imports (1982). In 1982, the U.S. accused Libya of sponsoring a West Berlin nightclub bombing that killed two American servicemen; as a reprisal, President Ronald Reagan ordered a bombing raid against Tripoli and Banghazi in an apparent attempt to kill Qaddafi (1986).
History - 1988 to Present
In December 1988, a bomb blew up a Pan Am commercial airplane over Lockerbie, Scotland, killing 270 people. International warrants were issued for the arrest and extradition to Great Britain of two Libyans, but the government refused to surrender the suspects. In 1989, it was discovered that a West German company was selling Libya equipment for the construction of a chemical weapons plant at Rabta. These actions, as well as the widespread belief in the U.S. and Europe that Qaddafi’s regime was responsible for terrorist activities, led to American and UN sanctions against Libya (1992). The sanctions did not have much of an effect upon the country’s economy, however, because oil revenues generated sufficient foreign exchange to assure continued imports of food, consumer goods, and equipment for the oil industry and ongoing development projects. In fact, the sanctions were lifted in April 1999. Libya’s relations with both Egypt and Chad remain tense. There are sporadic military clashes along the Egyptian border, and Libya continues to claim Chad’s Aouzou Strip across its SE border. In 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its weapons of mass destruction programs.
Government
Though he holds no official title, Revolutionary Leader Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi is de facto chief of state. The head of government is Secretary of the General People's Committee (Prime Minister) Shukri Muhammad (since 2003).
