Iran (i-RAHN), Islamic republic (1,648,195 sq mi/4,268,825 sq km; 1991 population 55,837,163; 2004 estimated population 69,018,924), SW Asia; (cap.) Tehran. Name was changed from Persia to Iran in 1935 by royal decree.
Geography
Tehran is the largest city of Iran and is the political, cultural, commercial, and industrial center of the nation. Esfahan, Mashhad, Tabriz, Rasht, Hamadan, Kermanshah, Abadan, Shiraz, and Ahvaz are other major cities. Bordered in N by Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkmenistan (all parts of former USSR) and the Caspian Sea; E by Afghanistan and Pakistan; S by the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman; and W by Turkey and Iraq. The Shatt al Arab forms part of the Iran-Iraq border. Physiographically, Iran lies within the Alpine-Himalayan mountain system and is composed of a vast central plateau rimmed by mountain ranges and limited lowland regions. Iran is subject to numerous and often severe earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The Iranian Plateau (elev. c.4,000 ft/1,200 m), which extends beyond the low ranges of E Iran into Afghanistan, is a region of interior drainage. It consists of a number of arid basins of salt and sand, including Dasht-e Kavir and Dasht-e Lut, and some marshlands, such as the area along the Afghanistan border.
The plateau is surrounded by high folded and volcanic mountain chains including the Kopet Mountains (Kopet Dag) in the NW, the Elburz Mountains (rising to 18,934 ft/5,771 m at Mount Damavand, Iran’s highest point) in the N, and the complex Zagros Mountains in the W. Lake Urmia, the country’s largest inland body of water, is in the Zagros of NW Iran. Narrow coastal plains are found along the shores of the Persian Gulf, Gulf of Oman, and the Caspian Sea; at the head of the Persian Gulf is the Iranian section of the Mesopotamian lowlands. Of the few perennial rivers in Iran, only the Karun in the W is navigable for large craft; other rivers are the Karkheh and the Sefid.
Iran’s climate is continental, with hot summers and cold, rainy winters; the mountain regions of the N and W have a subtropical climate. Temperature and precipitation vary with elevation, as winds bring heavy moisture from the Mediterranean and Persian Gulf. The Caspian region receives over 40 in/102 cm of rain annually. Precipitation occurs mainly in the winter and decreases from NW to SW; much of the precipitation in the mountains is in the form of snow. Snowmelt is vital for Iran’s water supply. The central portion of the plateau and the S coastal plain (Makran) receive less than 5 in/12.7 cm of rain annually. The N slopes of the Elburz Mountains are heavily wooded. Tree cutting is rigidly controlled by the government, which also has a reforestation program. Rivers toward the Caspian Sea have salmon, carp, trout, and pike; sturgeon are abundant in the sea. Of the variety of natural resources found in Iran, petroleum (discovered in 1908 in Khuzestan) and natural gas are by far the most important. The chief oil fields are in the central and SW parts of the Zagros Mountains with other fields in N Iran and in the offshore waters of the Persian Gulf. Domestic oil and gas, along with hydroelectric facilities, provide the country with power.
Population
Iran’s central position has made it a crossroads of migration; the population is not homogeneous, although it has a Persian core. The migrant ethnic groups of the mountains and highlands, including the Kurds, Lurs, Qashqai, and Bakhtiari, are of the least mixed descent of the original Iranians. In the N provinces, Turkic and Tatar influences are evident; Arab strains predominate in the SE. Islam entered the country in the 7th century and is now the official religion; about 95% of Iranians are Muslims, mainly of the Shiite sect. The remainder, mostly Kurds and Arabs, are Sunnis. Colonies of Zoroastrians remain at Yazd, Kerman, and other large towns. In addition to Armenian and Assyrian Christian sects, there are Jews, Protestants, and Roman Catholics. Extreme measures are in force to suppress Babism and its successor, Bahaism, in Iran. Other religious movements, such as Mithraism and Manichaeism, originated in Iran. The principal language of the country is Persian (Farsi), which is written in Arabic characters, but others include Iranian languages and dialects, Turkic dialects, Turkish, Kurdish, Arabic, and Armenian. Among the educated classes, English and French are spoken. Iran has a large rural population (more than 90% of people live in agricultural villages); there are also small groups of nomadic and seminomadic pastoralists throughout the country.
Economy
Khorramshahr, a port on the Shatt al Arab most accessible to large vessels, was badly damaged and put out of action during the Iran-Iraq war. Bushehr has since become a major port; Bandar-e Anzali is the chief Caspian Sea port. A network of roads links the villages with the larger cities; most of the principal routes are paved. The Trans-Iranian railroad links N Iran with the Persian Gulf; numerous branch lines connect with points E and W of the main line.
About 8% of land in Iran is arable. The main food-producing areas are in the Caspian region and in the valleys of the NW. Wheat, the most important crop, is grown mainly in the W and NW; rice is the major crop in the Caspian region. Barley, corn, cotton, tea, hemp, tobacco, sugar beets, fruits (including citrus), nuts, and dates are also grown. Fish is abundant, and livestock is raised in most inhabited parts of the country. Forestry products, from areas in the Caspian region, are important. Cultivation of the opium poppy was prohibited in 1955. The principal obstacles to agricultural production are primitive farming methods, overworked and underfertilized soil, poor seed, and the scarcity of water. About one-third of the cultivated land is irrigated; the construction of multipurpose dams and reservoirs along the rivers in the Zagros and Elburz mountains have increased the amount of water available for irrigation. Agricultural programs of modernization, mechanization, and crop and livestock improvement, and programs for the redistribution of land are increasing agricultural production.
The petroleum industry is Iran’s economic mainstay; oil accounts for over 90% of Iran’s export revenues. Finances are used to stimulate industrial growth and diversification as well as to provide for better social conditions and to lure private and foreign investments. Iran also has the world’s second-largest reserves of natural gas. Petroleum production is concentrated in W Iran and major refineries are at Abadan (site of Iran’s first refinery, built in 1913), Bakhtaran, and Tehran. Pipelines move oil from the fields to the refineries and to exporting ports of Abadan, Bandar Mahshahr, and Khark Island, which during the Iran-Iraq war was a focal point of attacks after Abadan was destroyed. Iran is a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).
Textiles are Iran's second most important industrial product; Tehran and Esfahan are the chief textile-producing centers. Other major industries are sugar refining, food processing, and petrochemical production and machinery. There is an iron and steel plant at Esfahan and a fertilizer plant at Shiraz. Traditional handicrafts, such as carpet weaving, and the mfg. of ceramics, silk, and jewelry are also important parts of Iran’s economy.
Besides crude and refined petroleum, Iran’s chief exports are cotton, carpets, and fruit; its chief imports are food, metals, machinery, military supplies, and chemicals. Iran’s chief trading partners are Japan, China, Italy, South Korea, and the Netherlands.
History to 16th Century
Until 1979, Iran was a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary form of govt., which adhered to the constitution of 1906. Iran became a theocratic Islamic republic in 1979. A new constitution was written, incorporating a four-year presidential term, a prime minister, and a parliament. Many religious political parties exist, some of which are suppressed by the government. An important Islamic religious advisory board works in close conjunction with the government Iran has a long and rich history. Some of the world’s most ancient settlements have been excavated in the Caspian region and on the Iranian plateau; village life began there c.4000 B.C. The Aryans came about 2000 B.C. and split into two main groups, the Medes and the Persians. The Persian Empire founded by Cyrus the Great (c.550 B.C.) was succeeded, after a period of Greek and Parthian rule, by the Sassanid in the early 3d century A.D. This empire ruled until Arabs invaded, bringing Islam (641). For the next several centuries, the area was ruled by the Turks (10th century), the Mongols (13th century), and finally Tamerlane (14th century).
History - 16th Century to 1813
The Safavid dynasty (1502–1736), founded by Shah Ismail, restored internal order in Iran and established the Shiite sect of Islam as the state religion; it reached its height during the reign (1587–1629) of Shah Abbas I (Abbas the Great). He drove out the Portuguese, who had established colonies on the Persian Gulf early in the 16th century. Shah Abbas also established trade relations with Great Britain and reorganized the army. Religious differences led to frequent wars with the Ottoman Turks, whose interest in Iran was to continue well into the 20th century. The fall of the Safavid dynasty was brought about by the Afghans, who overthrew the weak shah, Husein, in 1722 and ruled for a short time. Under the subsequent Afshar dynasty (1736), and the Zand dynasty (1750–1794), Iran enjoyed a period of wealth, peace, and prosperity. The capital was established at Shiraz. In the early years of the Qajar dynasty (1794–1925), Iran steadily lost territory to neighboring countries and fell under the increasing influence of European nations, particularly czarist Russia.
History - 1813 to 1919
The treaties of Gulistan (1813) and Turkmanchai (1828) forced Iran to give up the Caucasian lands. Herat, the rich city on the Hari Rud, which had been part of the ancient Persian Empire, was taken by the Afghans. A series of campaigns to reclaim it ended with the intervention of the British on behalf of Afghanistan and resulted in the recognition of Afghan independence by Iran in 1857. The discovery of oil in the early 1900s intensified the rivalry of Great Britain and Russia for power over the nation. Internally, the early 20th century saw the rise of the constitutional movement and a constitution establishing a parliament was accepted by the shah in 1906. Meanwhile, British-Russian rivalry continued and, in 1907, resulted in an Anglo-Russian agreement (annulled after World War I) that divided Iran into spheres of influence. The period preceding World War I was one of political and financial difficulty. During the war, Iran was occupied by the British and Russians but remained neutral; after the war, Iran was admitted to the League of Nations as an original member.
History - 1919 to 1951
In 1919, Iran made a trade agreement with Great Britain in which Britain formally reaffirmed Iran’s independence but actually attempted to establish a complete protectorate over it. After Iranian recognition of the USSR in a 1921 treaty, the Soviet Union renounced czarist imperialistic policies toward Iran, canceled all debts and concessions, and withdrew occupation forces from Iranian territory. In 1921, Reza Khan, an army officer, effected a coup d’etat and established a military dictatorship. He was subsequently (1925) elected hereditary shah, ending the Qajar dynasty and founding the Pahlavi dynasty. Reza Shah Pahlavi abolished the British treaty, reorganized the army, introduced many reforms, and encouraged the development of industry and education. British, Soviet, and U.S. troops occupied Iran after Germany’s 1941 invasion of the USSR. In 1943 the Teheran Declaration was signed by these nations to guarantee the independence and territorial integrity of Iran. However, the USSR, dissatisfied with the refusal of the Iranian government to grant it oil concessions, fomented a revolt in the N which led to the establishment (December 1945) of the People’s Republic of Azerbaijan and the Kurdish People’s Republic, headed by Soviet-controlled leaders. The Soviets finally withdrew (May 1946) after receiving a promise of oil concessions from Iran subject to approval by the parliament. The Soviet-established governments in the N, lacking popular support, were deposed by Iranian troops late in 1946, and the parliament subsequently rejected the oil concessions.
History - 1951 to 1978
In 1951, the National Front movement nationalized the oil industry and formed the National Iranian Oil Co. (NIOC). A British blockade led to the virtual collapse of the oil industry and serious internal economic troubles until, in 1954, Iran allowed an international consortium of British, U.S., French, and Dutch oil companies to operate its oil facilities, with profits shared equally between Iran and the consortium. Starting in the 1960s and continuing into the 1970s, the Iranian government, at the shah’s initiative, undertook a broad program designed to improve economic and social conditions. Land reform was a major priority and within three years, 1.5 million former tenant farmers were landowners. Women received the right to vote in national elections in 1963. In April 1969, Iran voided the 1937 accord with Iraq on the control of the Shatt al Arab and demanded that the treaty, which had given Iraq virtual control of the river, be renegotiated. In 1971, although Iran renounced all claims to Bahrain in 1970, it took control (November 1971) of three small, Arab-owned islands at the mouth of the Persian Gulf. In 1975, the Iran-Iraq Border Agreement provided that the two countries would define their frontiers on the basis of the protocol of Constantinople of 1913, and the verbal agreement on frontiers of 1914, and that the Shatt al Arab frontier would be defined according to the Thalweg line. This treaty later became one of the key issues of the war with Iraq that broke out in September 1980.
History - 1978 to 1989
The shah’s autocratic rule and his extensive use of the secret police led to widespread popular unrest throughout 1978. The religious-based protests were conservative in nature, directed against the shah’s policies. The Ayatollah Khomeini, who had been expelled from Iraq in February 1978, called for the abdication of the shah. Martial law was declared in September for all major cities. As government controls faltered, the Shah Pahlavi fled Iran on January 16, 1979. Khomeini returned and led religious revolutionaries to the final overthrow of the shah’s government on February 11th. The new government represented a major shift toward conservatism. It nationalized industries and banks and revived Islamic traditions. Western influence and music were banned, women were forced to return to traditional veiled dress, and Westernized elites fled the country. A new constitution was written allowing for a presidential system, but Khomeini remained at the executive helm. On November 4, 1979, Iranian militants seized the U.S. Embassy in Tehran, taking fifty-two American hostages. The hostage crisis lasted 444 days and was finally resolved on January 20, 1980. Nearly all Iranian conditions had been met, including the unfreezing of nearly $8 billion in Iranian assets. On September 22nd, Iraq invaded Iran, commencing an eight-year war primarily over the disputed Shatt al Arab waterway. Fighting crippled both nations, devastating Iran’s military supply and oil industry and leading to an estimated 500,000 to one million casualties. Chemical weapons were used by both countries. In July 1988, Khomeini agreed to accept a UN cease-fire with Iraq, ending the eight-year war. Iran immediately began rebuilding the nation’s economy, especially its oil industry.
History - 1989 to Present
Khomeini died of illness in June 1989 and was succeeded by Ali Akbar Rafsanjani, who sought improved relations and financial aid with Western nations. A major earthquake hit N Iran on June 21, 1990, killing nearly 40,000 people. Iran remained neutral during the Persian Gulf War, aside from harboring defecting Iraqi pilots and grounding their planes during the fighting. Countries of the EU have renewed economic ties with Iran; the U.S. has blocked more normalized relations until Iran stops its support of what the U.S. considers terrorist organizations. In May 1997, Mohammed Khatami, a moderately liberal Muslim cleric, was elected president, which has been widely seen as a reaction against the country’s repressive social policies and lack of economic progress. Iran provinces include.: Ardabil, Ariana, Azarbayjan-e Gharbi, Fars, Garus , Gilan, Hamadan, Hormozgan, Ilam, Kerman, Kermanshshan, Khamseh, Khorasan, Khuzestan, Lorestan , Mazandaran, Markazi, Pars, Sistan va Baluchestan, Tehran, Yazd, and Zanjan.
Government
Supremem Leader Ayatollah Ali Hoseini Khomeini remains head of state, with Mohammad Khatami as president.
